Different elements exist on Earth, each with distinct physical and chemical properties based on their atomic structure. To systematically categorize elements with similar characteristics, scientists use the atomic number, which represents the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus.1
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The modern periodic table, arranged in rows and columns, was first introduced by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. At the time, it included the known elements and their properties, but Mendeleev predicted that additional, yet-undiscovered elements would eventually fill the gaps.
His predictions proved correct, as newly discovered elements were gradually added to the table. Over time, advancements in materials science and nuclear research have led to further updates, including the synthesis of new elements and refinements in atomic weight measurements. This article explores these updates and their significance.
Recognition of New Elements
The discovery and synthesis of new elements play a key role in the expansion of the periodic table. Between 2000 and 2016, five new elements were added, along with the identification of more than 50 isotopes by nuclear physicists.
Nihonium: Element 113
Nihonium, developed by Japanese researchers, was officially recognized as the 113th element of the periodic table. It was synthesized at RIKEN, a Japanese institute specializing in physical and chemical sciences.
Researchers created Nihonium through a fusion reaction between Zinc and Bismuth nuclei. A beam of Zinc nuclei was accelerated to approximately 10 % of the speed of light, overcoming repulsive forces to enable fusion. This reaction resulted in the formation of Nihonium, accompanied by the emission of one neutron.2
Flerovium: Element 114
Flerovium (Fl) is a superheavy element (SHE) with atomic number 114. Experimental studies have shown that in SHEs like Fl, the spherical s and p₁/₂ electron shells contract and become more stable. These elements have a nonzero electron density at the nucleus, making them highly stable. Nuclear scientists refer to this phenomenon as the direct relativistic effect. As a result, the nonspherical atomic orbitals (AOs) in Fl are more effectively shielded from the nucleus.
Research on Flerovium has shown that its 7p orbitals exhibit significant spin-orbit splitting. The strong relativistic stabilization of the 7p₁/₂ orbitals leads to a quasi-closed-shell configuration of 7s27p1/22. This electronic structure contributes to Flerovium’s high volatility and chemical properties, which are similar to those of metals.3
Moscovium: Element 115
Moscovium (Mc) was synthesized using a high-speed beam of 48Ca ions. The beam was directed at 243Am (Z=95) in a particle accelerator to induce a fusion reaction. This reaction resulted in the formation of a new nucleus, which cooled by emitting three neutrons.
The initial studies aimed at producing the 288Mc isotope were conducted in Moscovia, a region in Moscow, Russia. In recognition of the contributions of Russian scientists, the newly discovered element was named Moscovium.4
Livermorium: Element 116
Livermorium (Lv) was synthesized by researchers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, USA. To recognize their contributions, the element was named Livermorium.
Researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) described the synthesis of this superheavy element (SHE) using the Berkeley Gas-Filled Separator (BGS) at the 88-inch Cyclotron facility. The process involved a fusion reaction between an enriched 50Ti beam and a 244Pu target.
The Livermorium ions produced were separated from unwanted beam particles and nuclear reaction byproducts using the BGS. These ions were then implanted into a focal plane detector system for analysis.5 Livermorium is highly reactive, does not occur naturally, and has only been produced in laboratory settings.
Tennessine: Element 117
Tennessine (Ts) was officially recognized as element 117 by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in 2016.6
The discovery of its isotopes was reported by Yuri Oganessian and his research team. The element was synthesized through a fusion reaction between 48Ca and 249Bk.7
Oganesson: Element 118
Oganesson (Og) is the most recently added superheavy element (SHE) in the periodic table. It completes the seventh period and belongs to group 18 of the noble gases.
So far, only five atoms of Oganesson have been successfully produced through nuclear collision experiments. A notable discovery is its unexpected semiconducting behavior. As a rare and short-lived element with atomic number 118, Oganesson can only be synthesized one atom at a time, with production rates as low as one atom per week or less.8
Oganesson - Periodic Table of Videos
Atomic Weight Revisions: A Shift from Fixed Values to Intervals
The presence of isotopes leads to variations in the atomic weight of elements. The importance of accurately measuring atomic weights dates back to 1979, when the Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances was established.
In 2009, during a meeting in Vienna, the Commission introduced a significant change by adopting interval notation instead of fixed constants for the standard atomic weight of hydrogen and nine other elements. This approach reflects the natural variations in atomic weight due to isotopic differences.
A study by Coplen et al. details the atomic weight intervals officially presented by IUPAC.9 The interval notation represents the range of atomic weights found in normal materials. For example, hydrogen’s standard atomic weight is expressed as [1.00784; 1.00811], meaning that in any naturally occurring sample, its atomic weight will be at least 1.00784 and at most 1.00811.
This shift acknowledges the variability of atomic weights in nature, moving away from the assumption of fixed values.
Advancements in Superheavy Element Research
Over the past three decades, heavy ion-induced fusion reactions have led to the discovery of superheavy elements (SHEs) up to atomic number 118. These fusion reactions can be classified as cold fusion or hot fusion processes. Lead and Bismuth are commonly used as targets in cold fusion, producing SHEs with the desired atomic number. In contrast, hot fusion reactions involve neutron-rich actinides as targets, with an energized Calcium beam as the projectile.
Ongoing theoretical and experimental studies aim to synthesize SHEs beyond atomic number 118. A recent study by Sowmya et al. investigated the potential of Manganese (Mn)-induced fusion reactions for producing elements with Z > 118 using a hybrid approach.
The study used the Thomas–Fermi model to calculate nuclear potential, a method that models nucleon behavior within atomic nuclei. Advanced statistical modeling was applied to estimate evaporation residue cross-sections, a key factor in determining reaction feasibility.
Results indicated that the fusion reaction between 55Mn and 41Pu was the most energetically favorable for forming SHEs with atomic numbers 119 to 122. This reaction produced the highest evaporation residue cross-sections, suggesting an efficient pathway for SHE synthesis. The maximum evaporation residue cross-section limits ranged from 415.1 fb to 5.4 fb in reactions involving 55Mn.
These findings suggest that Manganese-based fusion reactions offer a promising route for synthesizing superheavy elements with atomic numbers 119 to 122.10
Future Prospects
Recent breakthroughs have transformed the field of element discovery, and the synthesis of superheavy elements with even higher atomic numbers is expected in the near future.
The integration of AI-based data processing and statistical models is improving efficiency by reducing the need for unnecessary experimental studies, lowering costs, and accelerating discoveries. Additionally, advancements in quantum physics are enhancing our understanding of subatomic interactions in these newly synthesized elements.
With continued research and technological progress, further changes to the periodic table are likely within the next 15 years.
To stay informed about the latest advancements in analytical chemistry, nuclear physics, and element discovery, explore these resources:
References and Further Reading
- NASA. (2021). Periodic Table of the Elements: Origins of the Elements. [Online] NASA. Available at: https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/13873/ [Accessed on: January 20, 2025].
- En’yo, H. (2019). History of nihonium. Pure and Applied Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2019-0810
- Yakushev, A., et. al. (2014). Superheavy element flerovium (element 114) is a volatile metal. Inorganic chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1021/ic4026766
- Oganessian, Y. (2019). The making of Moscovium. Nature Chem. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-018-0185-6
- Gates, J., et. al. (2024). Toward the Discovery of New Elements: Production of Livermorium (Z= 116) with Ti 50. Physical Review Letters. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.16079
- Winter, J. (2025). Tennessine - 117Ts: the essentials. [Online] The University of Sheffield. Available at: https://winter.group.shef.ac.uk/webelements/tennessine/ [Accessed on: January 22, 2025].
- Oganessian, Y., et al. (2010). Synthesis of a new element with atomic number Z= 117. Physical review letters. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.142502
- Smits, O., et. al. (2020). Oganesson: a noble gas element that is neither noble nor a gas. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202011976
- Coplen, T., et. al. (2011). Atomic Weights—No Longer Constants of Nature. Chemistry International. https://publications.iupac.org/ci/2011/3302/ci3302preprintXcoplen_101210.pdf
- Anushree, H., et. al. (2024). Fusion mechanism involved in the synthesis of superheavy element Z> 118 using Mn projectiles. Nuclear Analysis. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucana.2024.100124
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