An Overview of Biomaterials: Advancements and Applications

By Ibtisam AbbasiReviewed by Lexie CornerUpdated on Dec 3 2024

Biomaterials are essential in modern medicine and aesthetics, supporting applications such as orthopedics, drug delivery, tissue regeneration, and cosmetic procedures.¹ Engineering advancements have enabled the development of regenerative biomaterials, zwitterionic biomaterials, smart 3D-printed materials, and specialized materials tailored for specific uses.

Image Credit: Marko Aliaksandr/Shutterstock.com

These innovations are used in joint and limb replacements, artificial arteries, skin grafts, contact lenses, dentures, and aesthetic enhancements such as breast implants. Current efforts aim to balance clinical efficacy with regulatory requirements, ensuring safe and effective solutions for both medical and aesthetic needs.

Biomaterial Classifications

Biomedical materials are roughly classified into three main types, governed by the tissue response:

• Close-to-inert materials: Elicit no or minimal tissue response.
• Active materials: Encourage bonding to surrounding tissue through, for example, stimulation of new bone growth.
• Degradable or resorbable materials: Are incorporated into surrounding tissue or completely dissolve over time.

The tissue response can vary depending on the material: metals are typically inert; ceramics may be inert, active, or resorbable; polymers may be inert or resorbable.

Table 1. Examples of Biomaterials

The main requirement of a biomaterial is that it does not elicit an adverse reaction when placed into service. The range of applications for biomaterials is enormous, as is the variety of materials used.

Biomaterials: Advancements and Applications

Metallic Biomaterials

Metals are widely used as biomaterials, particularly for surgical implants. Their strength, durability, and load-bearing capacity make them suitable for orthopedic and dental applications. Additionally, metal-based biomaterials have favorable electrical properties and can be easily fabricated, supporting their use in neuromuscular and cardiovascular surgical procedures.²

Advancements in 3D Printing for Metallic Biomaterials

Additive manufacturing (AM), including 3D printing, has enhanced the performance of metallic biomaterials for medical and cosmetic applications. It has also enabled the creation of lightweight, durable surgical hardware, precision electronics, tissue repair components, and microfluidic devices. Modern 3D printing techniques allow for precise customization, high-strength structures, and improved tensile properties.³

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is commonly used for 3D printing metallic biomaterials such as stainless steel, while selective laser melting (SLM) is employed for producing iron-based materials like Fe-35Mn, which is utilized in scaffold manufacturing. Coating stainless steel produced via SLM with silver zeolite has demonstrated superior biocompatibility.⁴ Additionally, SLM has been applied to alloys containing metals such as titanium, zinc, magnesium, and cobalt.⁴

For titanium biomaterials used in implants, electron beam melting (EBM) is a widely adopted technique. EBM produces fine structures with minimal contaminants, often followed by post-processing steps such as hydrothermal treatment. These titanium-based biomaterials exhibit improved surface roughness, enhanced hydrophilicity, and better integration with the human body.⁵

Other additive manufacturing methods, including binder jetting, fused deposition modeling (FDM), and wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), provide precise fabrication of metallic biomaterials. These advancements have improved the durability and efficiency of personalized implants and metallic alloy-based biomaterials.⁶

Applications

Orthopedic Implants: Metallic and metal-alloy biomaterials are widely used in orthopedic implants due to their ductility and corrosion resistance. Stainless steel is a cost-effective option for removable implants such as artificial hip adjustment screws and fracture disks. Cobalt-chromium biomaterials, known for their excellent biocompatibility, are commonly used in hip prosthetic implants.⁷

Titanium is a preferred material for bone implants because of its low modulus, high strength, fatigue resistance, and non-toxic properties. Titanium nanotubes are employed in orthopedic procedures to enhance cellular response and support drug delivery in long-term therapies. Research also indicates titanium-based biomaterials exhibit antibacterial properties, reducing the risk of infection compared to traditional antibiotic treatments.⁸

Dentistry: Metallic biomaterials have long been used in dental implants and surgical procedures. Titanium-based implants are highly biocompatible, demonstrate the highest survival rates, and do not cause infections or allergic reactions.

Studies show that titanium implants promote the accumulation of blood plasma proteins on their oxide layer, leading to fibrin matrix formation. These matrices enhance bone cell production, providing long-term stability and improved osseointegration.

Zirconia-based dental implants offer biocompatibility and are safe for oral tissues and muscles. Their aesthetic appeal makes them a popular choice for dental applications. Studies reveal that Zirconia implants exhibit lower degradation rates and better cell viability than titanium implants over a decade. Zirconia also demonstrates higher cell spreading and survival rates, making it a viable alternative to titanium in dental applications.⁹

Polymeric Biomaterials

The properties of the material play a crucial role in the success of an implant. Polymeric biomaterials are suitable for various biomedical applications because of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and durability. Commonly used polymeric biomaterials include polyurethane (PU), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycaprolactone (PCL), and polylactic acid (PLA).

Biodegradable polymeric materials are commonly used in drug delivery due to their ability to release drugs in a controlled manner and be safely absorbed by the body. Among these, hydrogels are frequently applied in pharmaceutical applications, as they have a high water content and adjustable degradation rates. These properties also make hydrogels suitable for tissue engineering and wound healing.¹⁰

Recent Developments

Smart polymers, including shape-memory polymers (SMPs) and stimuli-responsive hydrogels, have advanced significantly. For wound healing, chitosan and poloxamer 123 (CP) copolymers have been explored.¹¹ Thermoresponsive biomaterials have also been developed for cell capturing and microcarrier production, expanding their applications in tissue engineering and regeneration.

The emphasis on sustainability has led to extensive research on natural sources for polymeric biomaterials. Flavonoid-based biomaterials, with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, have been studied as promising alternatives.

Naringenin-based polymeric biomaterials, for instance, have been developed with higher thermal stability, enhanced oxidation resistance, free-radical reduction capabilities, and antimicrobial properties. These characteristics position them as sustainable and efficient materials for biomedical applications.¹²

Applications

Modern polymeric materials, such as SMPs, are applied in biosensors, targeted drug delivery systems for cancer treatments, self-healing medical applications, and advanced biomedical devices.

Wound Healing: Polymer-based antibacterial cryogels have been developed as injectable solutions to control blood loss in damaged vessels and accelerate wound healing.

Bone Regeneration and Soft Tissue Repair: Electrospinning techniques are used to develop nanostructures, such as nanorods, for bone regeneration.¹³

Additionally, silane chain transfer technologies have been explored for homopolymerizations and cross-linking reactions to create gels for polymeric joint replacements, anti-fouling catheter surfaces, and siloxane printing for soft tissue applications.¹⁴

Cosmetics: Polymeric biomaterials play an important role in cosmetic surgery. Beyond traditional applications of poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) as facial fillers, recent uses include volume enhancement, customized body contouring, reducing sagging skin, and fine-line treatment on areas such as the chest, buttocks, arms, and hands.¹⁵

Breast reconstruction frequently employs polymer-based biomaterials. Hydrogels, such as polyacrylamide gel, have shown promise in developing scaffolds for breast reconstruction. Studies indicate that PU-based scaffolds are particularly effective for breast volume restoration due to their tunable properties.¹⁶

The acellular dermal matrix (ADM), derived from collagen, has also gained attention for cosmetic breast surgeries and is considered a potential advancement in breast reconstruction techniques.

Tabletop SEM Analysis of Cosmetics

Cardiovascular Applications: 3D-printed vascular stents made from shape-memory PLA are designed to expand under body heat to restore blood flow.¹⁷ In addition to stents, polymeric biomaterials play a vital role in cardiovascular implants, including cardiac patches for heart muscle repair following myocardial infarction.

Studies indicate success in tissue engineering using electrospun scaffolds composed of 80 % gelatin and 20% fibrinogen, showcasing their potential in regenerative medicine.

Polymer blends, such as PLLA and PLLA/PLGA (poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid), are commonly used as biodegradable stent coatings. These materials degrade into naturally occurring compounds, reducing the risk of long-term complications.

These advancements illustrate the significant role of polymeric biomaterials and blends in modern cardiovascular implants and tissue regeneration.¹⁸

Ceramic Biomaterials

The use of ceramic biomaterials has grown significantly in recent decades, driven by advancements in materials science and manufacturing techniques. Synthetic ceramics, including alumina, titania, and bioactive glass-ceramics, are widely applied in dental implants, biomedical sensors, orthopedic tissues, and joint replacements.¹⁹

Alumina and zirconia are among the most commonly used ceramic oxide biomaterials, particularly for bone tissue and joint repair, such as in total knee arthroplasty. Their wear resistance, durability, and biocompatibility make them suitable for applications in tissue engineering.

Applications

Bone Tissue Engineering: Synthetic porous bioceramics are widely utilized for scaffolding and fabricating artificial bone structures. One key feature is their ability to form networks of interconnected beams, creating structural lattices that provide mechanical support and promote cell growth. These properties make them highly effective for tissue engineering and complex orthopedic implants.²⁰

Hydroxyapatite ceramics produced using FDM techniques enable the creation of customized bone scaffolds, supporting bone tissue regeneration.

Dental Applications: Bioceramic scaffolds made from bioactive glass and tricalcium phosphates are used in dental restorations, such as crowns and dentures. Their biocompatibility and durability make them effective materials for these applications.

Hip Prosthetics: 3D-printed bioceramics are used for hip prosthetics in orthopedic surgeries. The use of bioceramics allows for the customization of prosthetic sizes and shapes from standard geometrical parameters to meet patient-specific requirements. This customization enhances the precision and fit of implants, improving their structural integration and overall performance.

Additionally, 3D printing significantly reduces material waste during manufacturing, making the process more cost-effective and environmentally sustainable.²¹

Cancer Applications: Theranostic biomaterials, a type of nanostructured bioceramics, have emerged as effective tools for cancer imaging and therapy. These materials enable simultaneous imaging and targeted drug delivery, supporting personalized and precise treatment strategies.

Commonly used bioceramics for these applications include quantum dots, iron oxide nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes. These materials facilitate the development of multifunctional implantable systems that integrate imaging, therapy, and targeted drug delivery tailored to the patient’s requirements.²²

Composite Biomaterials

Although metallic, polymeric, and ceramic biomaterials each offer distinct benefits, none fully meet all the requirements for sustainable, high-quality implants. A potential solution involves creating composite or hybrid biomaterials by combining different constituents, each contributing specific properties to the final material.

Recent research has emphasized the development of biocomposites from natural sources to align with sustainability goals. Studies have demonstrated that mycelium, the vegetative part of fungi, can be used to produce composite biomaterials. These mycelium-based materials have low production costs, require less energy, and are environmentally benign.²³

To replicate the natural composition of bone tissue, studies have shown that simple composite biomaterials can be formed by mixing apatite powder with collagen solutions. These composites, comprising a polymer matrix, are effective for delivering antibiotics to bone tissue while promoting bone cell regeneration. Additionally, researchers are working to optimize 3D printing techniques for composite biomaterials to improve their porosity and enhance osteogenic performance.²⁴

Novel Applications: Bladder Scaffold

In response to the increasing prevalence of urinary system issues, researchers have explored the use of composite biomaterials for bladder tissue regeneration. These biomaterials incorporate a bladder acellular matrix (BAM), collagen type I derived from rat tail, chitosan, and growth factors.

Experimental studies indicated that the grafting surgery using this composite biomaterial did not induce toxic reactions. The implanted bladder scaffold supported the growth of muscle bundles and blood vessels. By the eighth week, the bladder capacity returned to normal levels, and its retention function was comparable to that of a natural bladder.

This research demonstrates the potential of composite biomaterials to combine natural and mechanical properties, making them suitable for biomedical grafts, scaffolds, and implants.²⁵

Emerging Classes of Biomaterials

Functional Amyloids

The focus on sustainable and cost-effective biomaterials has led to the exploration of functional amyloids. Functional amyloids such as CsgA from Escherichia coli and FapC from Pseudomonas are of particular interest due to their availability and potential for engineering novel properties.

FA CsgA is produced through controlled processes and can readily self-assemble without requiring heating, specialized pH, or specific salt concentrations. This self-assembly property is especially valuable for applications such as 3D cell culturing, where maintaining physiological conditions and biocompatibility is essential.

Functional amyloids also play a role in the production of bioplastics and have applications in tissue engineering and drug delivery. Research has demonstrated their potential in neural regenerative tissue engineering, including their use as a differentiation medium when injected into the brain cavity. Despite these advantages, functional amyloid production is still in its early stages, and further research is needed to optimize production techniques and expand their applications across various fields.²⁶

Piezoelectric Biomaterials

Piezoelectric biomaterials are an emerging class of materials with applications in biomechanical energy harvesting, tissue repair, electrical stimulation therapy, and physiological signal monitoring. These materials often consist of small-molecule crystals, such as amino acids, or polymeric materials like PLLA.

Recent studies have explored implantable piezoelectric biomedical sensors using PLA packaging. The inverse piezoelectric effect has also been used to create medical devices such as intelligent tweezers made from PLLA. These tweezers generate precise vibrations under specific voltages, enabling the removal of blood clots from vessels.

Degradable piezoelectric biomaterials are also being investigated for their potential in nerve repair and tumor diagnosis. Continued advancements in this field are likely to expand their applications, solidifying their role in biomedical technologies.²⁶

Future Advancements

The field of biomaterials has progressed significantly over the past three decades, with ongoing research leading to the development of new material classes. The incorporation of nanotechnology, particularly carbonaceous nanomaterials (CNMs), has contributed to improved electromechanical properties, thermal stability, and surface area in biomaterials.

Magnesium-based alloys are being investigated for their osseointegration properties. Future efforts will likely focus on refining degradation rates in these alloys and addressing issues such as load-bearing fractures in polymeric and hybrid biomaterials.

Developments in 3D printing techniques are enabling the production of biomaterials with lower manufacturing costs and better mechanical properties compared to traditional stainless-steel-based materials.²⁷

The focus on sustainable and environmentally friendly biomaterials aims to improve biocompatibility and patient safety while addressing global environmental concerns. These advancements are expected to influence the growth and application of biomaterials in the coming years.

What Are Sustainable Materials?

References and Further Reading

1. Ratner, BD. et. al. (2020). A history of biomaterials. Biomaterials science. Chapter 1.1.2. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816137-1.00002-7
2. Pilliar, R. et. al. (2021). Metallic Biomaterials. Biomedical Materials. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49206-9_1
3. Sing, S. et. al. (2020). 3D printing of metals in rapid prototyping of biomaterials: Techniques in additive manufacturing. Rapid prototyping of biomaterials. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102663-2.00002-2
4. Qing, Y. et. al. (2020). Antibacterial effects of silver incorporated zeolite coatings on 3D printed porous stainless steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.110430
5. Yu, M., et al. (2020). 3D printed Ti-6Al-4 V implant with a micro/nanostructured surface and its cellular responses. ACS omega. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c04373
6. Chua, K. et. al. (2021). Additive manufacturing and 3D printing of metallic biomaterials. Engineered Regeneration. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engreg.2021.11.002
7. Thanigaivel, S. et. al. (2022). Insight on recent development in metallic biomaterials: Strategies involving synthesis, types and surface modification for advanced therapeutic and biomedical applications. Biochemical Engineering Journal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2022.108522
8. Sarraf, M. et al. (2022). A state-of-the-art review of the fabrication and characteristics of titanium and its alloys for biomedical applications. Bio-des. Manuf. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42242-021-00170-3
9. Haugen, H. et. al. (2022). Is There a Better Biomaterial for Dental Implants than Titanium?—A Review and Meta-Study Analysis. Journal of Functional Biomaterials. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb13020046
10. Pires, P., et. al. (2023). Polymer-based biomaterials for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications: A focus on topical drug administration. European Polymer Journal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2023.111868
11. Chatterjee, S. et. al. (2021). Review of Applications and Future Prospects of Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogel Based on Thermo-Responsive Biopolymers in Drug Delivery Systems. Polymers. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13132086
12. Latos-Brozio, M. et. al. (2021). Novel Polymeric Biomaterial Based on Naringenin. Materials. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14092142
13. Kalirajan, C. et. al. (2021). A Critical Review on Polymeric Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications. Polymers. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13173015
14. Weems, A., et. al. (2020). 3D printing for the clinic: Examining contemporary polymeric biomaterials and their clinical utility. Biomacromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.9b01539
15. Li, H. et. al. (2023). Recent progress and clinical applications of advanced biomaterials in cosmetic surgery. Regenerative Biomaterials. https://doi.org/10.1093/rb/rbad005
16. Abdul‐Al, M. et. al. (2020). Biomaterials for breast reconstruction: Promises, advances, and challenges. Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1002/term.3121
17. Jia, H. et. al. (2018). 3D printed self‐expandable vascular stents from biodegradable shape memory polymer. Advances in Polymer Technology. https://doi.org/10.1002/adv.22091
18. Toh, H. et. al. (2021). Polymer blends and polymer composites for cardiovascular implants. European Polymer Journal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2020.110249
19. Punj, S. et. al. (2021). Ceramic biomaterials: Properties, state of the art and future prospectives. Ceramics International. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.06.238
20. Vaiani, L. et. al. (2023). Ceramic Materials for Biomedical Applications: An Overview on Properties and Fabrication Processes. Journal of Functional Biomaterials. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb14030146
21. Ly, M. et. al. (2022). 3D printing of ceramic biomaterials. Engineered Regeneration. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engreg.2022.01.006
22. Montazerian, M. et al. (2022). Radiopaque Crystalline, Non-Crystalline and Nanostructured Bioceramics. Materials. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217477
23. Alemu, D. et. al. (2022). Mycelium‐based composite: The future sustainable biomaterial. International journal of biomaterials. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8401528
24. Kołodziejska, B. et. al. (2020). Biologically Inspired Collagen/Apatite Composite Biomaterials for Potential Use in Bone Tissue Regeneration—A Review. Materials. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13071748
25. Li, W. et. al. (2022). Construction of Tissue-Engineered Bladder Scaffolds with Composite Biomaterials. Polymers. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132654
26. Bai, Y. et. al. (2024). Degradable piezoelectric biomaterials for medical applications. Med Mat. https://www.doi.org/10.1097/mm9.0000000000000002
27. Filip, N. et. al. (2022). Biomaterials in Orthopedic Devices: Current Issues and Future Perspectives. Coatings. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings12101544

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